The Purple Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), colloquially known simply as "the mangosteen", is a tropical evergreen tree believed to have originated in the Sunda Islands and the Moluccas of Indonesia. The tree grows from 7 to 25 m (20–80 ft) tall. The rind (exocarp) of the edible fruit is deep reddish purple when ripe. Botanically an aril, the fragrant edible flesh can be described as sweet and tangy, citrusy with peach flavor and texture.
The purple mangosteen belongs to the same genus as the other, less widely known, mangosteens, such as the button mangosteen (G. prainiana) or the Garcinia madruno (G. madruno).
- 1 Taxonomy
- 2 Maturation of the exocarp and edible aril
- 3 Nutrient and phytochemical content
- 4 Legend, geographic origins and culinary applications
- 5 References
- 6 External links
The juvenile mangosteen fruit, which does not require fertilization to form (see agamospermy), first appears as pale green or almost white in the shade of the canopy. As the fruit enlarges over the next two to three months, the exocarp color deepens to darker green. During this period, the fruit increases in size until its exocarp is 6–8 centimeters in outside diameter, remaining hard until a final, abrupt ripening stage.
The subsurface chemistry of the mangosteen exocarp comprises an array of polyphenolic acids including xanthones and tannins that assureastringency which discourages infestation by insects, fungi, plant viruses, bacteria and animal predation while the fruit is immature. Color changes and softening of the exocarp are natural processes of ripening that indicates the fruit can be eaten and the seeds are finished developing.[1]
Mangosteen produces a recalcitrant seed and must be kept moist to remain viable until germination. Mangosteen seeds are nucellar in origin and not the result of fertilization; they germinate as soon as they are removed from the fruit and die quickly if allowed to dry.[2]
Once the developing mangosteen fruit has stopped expanding, chlorophyll synthesis slows as the next color phase begins. Initially streaked with red, the exocarp pigmentation transitions from green to red to dark purple, indicating a final ripening stage. This entire process takes place over a period of ten days as the edible quality of the fruit peaks.
Over days following removal from the tree, the exocarp hardens to an extent depending upon post-harvest handling and ambient storage conditions, especially humidity. If the ambient humidity is high, exocarp hardening may take a week or longer when the aril quality is peaking and excellent for consumption. However, after several additional days of storage, especially if unrefrigerated, the arils inside the fruit might spoil without any obvious external indications. Using hardness of the rind as an indicator of freshness for the first two weeks following harvest is therefore unreliable because the rind does not accurately reveal the interior condition of the arils. If the exocarp is soft and yielding as it is when ripe and fresh from the tree, the fruit is usually good.
The edible endocarp of the mangosteen is botanically defined as an aril with the same shape and size as a tangerine 4–6 centimeters in diameter, but is white. The circle of wedge-shaped arils contains 4–8 segments, the larger ones harboring apomictic seeds that are unpalatable unless roasted.
Often described as a subtle delicacy, the arils bear an exceptionally mild aroma, quantitatively having about 400 times fewer chemical constituents than fragrant fruits, explaining its relative mildness.[3] Main volatile components having caramel, grass and butter notes as part of the mangosteen fragrance are hexyl acetate, hexenol and α-copaene.
On the bottom of the exocarp, raised ridges (remnants of the stigma), arranged like spokes of a wheel, correspond to the number of aril sections.[4] Mangosteens reach fruit-bearing in as little as 5–6 years, but more typically require 8–10 years.[5]
[edit]Nutrient and phytochemical content
Mangosteen,
canned, syrup packNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 305 kJ (73 kcal) Carbohydrates 18 g Sugars ? g Dietary fibre 1.8 g Fat 0.6 g Protein 0.4 g Water 81 g Percentages are relative to US recommendationsfor adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient databaseThe aril is the flavorful part of the fruit but, when analyzed specifically for its nutrient content, the mangosteen aril only meets the first criterion above, as its overall nutrient profile is absent of important content.[6]
Some mangosteen juice products contain whole fruit purée or polyphenols extracted from the inedible exocarp (rind) as a formulation strategy to addphytochemical value. The resulting juice has purple color and astringency derived from exocarp pigments, including xanthones under study for potential anti-disease effects.[7] The potential health benefits of xanthones were debated in a four-part series in 2009.[8][9][10][11]
Other authors proposed that alpha-mangostin, a xanthone, could stimulate apoptosis in leukemia cells in vitro.[12]
Furthermore, a possible adverse effect may occur from chronic consumption of mangosteen juice containing xanthones. A 2008 medical case reportdescribed a patient with severe acidosis possibly attributable to a year of daily use (to lose weight, dose not described) of mangosteen juice infused withtannins.[13]
[edit]Legend, geographic origins and culinary applications
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Pleaseimprove this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. There is a legend about Queen Victoria offering a reward of 100 pounds sterling to anyone who could deliver to her the fresh fruit.[14] Although this legend can be traced to a 1930 publication by fruit explorer, David Fairchild, it is not substantiated by any known historical document yet is probably responsible for the uncommon designation of mangosteen as the "Queen of Fruit".[14]
In his publication, "Hortus Veitchii", James Herbert Veitch says that he visited Java in 1892, "to eat the Mangosteen. It is necessary to eat the Mangosteen grown within three or four degrees of latitude of the equator to realize at all the attractive and curious properties of this fruit."[15]
An ultra-tropical tree, the mangosteen must be grown in consistently warm conditions, as exposure to temperatures below 0°C (32°F) for prolonged periods will generally kill a mature plant. They are known to recover from brief cold spells rather well, often with damage only to young growth. Experienced horticulturists have grown this species outdoors, and brought them to fruit in extreme Southern Florida.
Due to ongoing restrictions on imports, mangosteen is not readily available in certain countries. Although available in Australia, for example, they are still rare in the produce sections of grocery stores in North America and Europe. Following export from its natural growing regions inSoutheast Asia, the fresh fruit may be available seasonally in some local markets like those of Chinatowns. Mangosteen and its related products, such as juices and nutritional supplements, are legally imported into the United States, which had an import ban until 2007.
Mangosteens are readily available canned and frozen in Western countries. Without fumigation or irradiation as fresh fruit, mangosteens have historically been illegal for importation in commercial volumes into the United States due to fears that they harbor the Asian fruit fly, which would endanger U.S. crops. This situation, however, officially changed on July 23, 2007 when irradiated imports from Thailand were allowed upon USDA approval of irradiation, packing and shipping techniques.[16] Freeze-dried and dehydrated mangosteen arils can also be found.
Since 2006, private small volume orders for fruits grown on Puerto Rico were sold to American gourmet restaurants who serve the aril pieces as a delicacy dessert.[17] Beginning in 2007 for the first time, fresh mangosteens were sold from specialty produce stores in New York City for as high as $45 per pound,[18] but, during 2009-10, wider availability and lower prices have become common in the United States and Canada.
Before ripening, the mangosteen shell is fibrous and firm, but becomes soft and easy to pry open when the fruit ripens. To open a mangosteen, the shell is usually scored first with a knife; one holds the fruit in both hands, prying gently along the score with the thumbs until the rind cracks. It is then easy to pull the halves apart along the crack and remove the fruit. Rarely in ripe fruits, the purple exocarp juice may stain skin or fabric.
[edit]References
- ^ Plant Pigments for Color and Nutrition
- ^ Mangosteen seed information
- ^ MacLeod AJ, Pieris NM. Volatile flavour components of mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana. Phytochemistry 21:117–9, 1982
- ^ Mangosteen photographs showing external characteristics (mangosteen.com)
- ^ Mangosteen growing characteristics
- ^ Mangosteen nutrient information
- ^ Jung HA, Su BN, Keller WJ, Mehta RG, Kinghorn AD (March 2006). "Antioxidant xanthones from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana (Mangosteen)". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 (6): 2077–82. doi:10.1021/jf052649z. PMID 16536578.
- ^ Crown I (2009). "Beyond the Mangosteen: A Future Full of Color". Retrieved 1-4-2010.
- ^ Morton DA (2009). "Mangostana - Commentary on the Mangosteen". Retrieved 1-4-2010.
- ^ Crown I (2009). "A Rebuttal on Mangosteen". Retrieved 1-4-2010.
- ^ Gross P, Crown I (2009). "The Mangosteen Controversy". Retrieved 1-4-2010.
- ^ Matsumoto K, Akao Y, Yi H, et al. (November 2004). "Preferential target is mitochondria in alpha-mangostin-induced apoptosis in human leukemia HL60 cells". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 12 (22): 5799–806. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2004.08.034. PMID 15498656.
- ^ Wong LP, Klemmer PJ (May 2008). "Severe lactic acidosis associated with juice of the mangosteen fruit Garcinia mangostana". American Journal of Kidney Diseases 51 (5): 829–33.doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2007.12.043. PMID 18436094.
- ^ a b The history and folklore of the mangosteen
- ^ Veitch, James Herbert (2006). Hortus Veitchii. Caradoc Doy. p. 89. ISBN 0-9553515-0-2.
- ^ Karp, David (June 27, 2007). "Welcome at the Border: Thai Fruits, Once Banned". The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
- ^ Karp, David (August 9, 2006). "Forbidden? Not the Mangosteen". The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
- ^ Karp, David (August 8, 2007). "Mangosteens Arrive, but Be Prepared to Pay". The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
[edit]External links
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive and inappropriate external links. (September 2010) - "Fruit That's Worth A Trip to Thailand" by Jarrett Wrisly, The Atlantic Food Channel, May 26, 2009
- Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases, Garcinia mangostana L., Clusiaceae
- Five Decades with Tropical Fruit, A Personal Journey (2001) by William Francis Whitman
- MontosoGardens.com — Garcinia mangostana (Clusi aceae)
- Morton, J. 1987. Mangosteen. p. 301–304. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
- Mayo Clinic report on mangosteen
- "I paid $11 for this strange fruit — and I’d do it again!", Gersh Kuntzman The Brooklyn Paper, August 18, 2007
- "Mangosteen price too low: farmers", The Nation, July 31, 2007
- MayoClinic.com. Mangosteen juice: can it relieve arthritis pain? October 10, 2007
- Tropical sweetness: harnessing the elusive mangosteen, P. Temple-West, Medill Reports-Washington, DC, March 5, 2008
[edit]Video
- Meet the Mangosteen, a video in The Food Chain: Environmental Cost of Shipping Groceries Around the World, NY Times, World Business, April 26, 2008
- Meet the Mangosteen: Once a forbidden fruit in the U.S., fresh mangosteen is developing a passionate legion of followers. New York Times Video, April 24, 2008
